Individual and environmental determinants of differences in excess mortality between neighbourhoods in Amsterdam during the COVID-19 pandemic

There was excess mortality in Amsterdam in 2020 and 2021, more people died than in 2018 and 2019. In this study we looked at which personal and environmental characteristics can explain differences in mortality. There was excess mortality, especially for people over 70, men, and people with a migration background. There were also strong differences between the 22 city areas, but there seemed to be no clear connection between excess mortality during the first, second and third waves of the pandemic. Higher excess mortality was also found in neighborhoods outside the ring road as well as in central neighborhoods. We also found that neighborhoods with more residents aged 65 and older, on average larger households, and more air pollution had a higher chance of excess mortality. Neighborhoods with more general practitioners, more green outdoor space and a higher socio-economic status actually had a lower risk of excess mortality. This research underlines the call for more action to reduce health disparities.